The author Olivier Hassid in his book Crime and insecurity
The crime is the set of illegal acts, criminal (felonies) and criminal (crimes), committed in a given environment at a given timeIt is the transgression of the legal norms of a social system. A standard is a rule which is given physically (universal, which exists always and everywhere, it is objective) or socially (as defined by the human being and differs according to time and space, it is so subjective). A standard is criminal if its purpose is to establish a minimum of order in the society and requires a certain behaviour of these members. The criminal standards are the regulatory and coercive, they form the legal order, and thus contribute to the maintenance of peace. On these standards, the criminologists are of the opinion that it is of standards, socially enacted, therefore, which vary from one country to the other, which means that the crime, as such, does not exist. Certain behaviors were labeled a crime and it is as well that they were banned. But other criminologists believe that the standards are objective because they are found everywhere and always, as in the case of killing someone without a reason. But"without reason"can strongly differ depending on the companies. Since the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti for a murder they had not committed, and not for the anarchist agitation in which they participated, almost all of the political affairs have been handled in criminal cases by the authorities (the civil rights activists, communists, Black Panthers, etc, Among the western countries, the United States is known for fighting crime with a system that is much more repressive (rate of imprisonment is five to ten times higher than european countries). The United States publish various statistics that show that the rate fluctuate from to with the goods and to violent crimes per, people, rates ranging from twenty to forty per inhabitants.
In the French Journal of criminology and penal law, Heather Mac Donald wonders about the excessive severity of the us penal system.
According to him, the United States currently is witnessing a media campaign of great magnitude aimed at delegitimizing the suppression of crime.
He stated that"America has not a problem of the prison population but a problem of crime". The cost of white-collar crime is estimated to be one, billion dollars per year according to data from the ministry of Justice. This crime represents a cost of twenty to thirty times higher than for ordinary crimes against property (burglary, hold-ups, car thefts, etc.). Understand to act show a strong increase of the crime between and in several european countries, including France, and an actual decrease from. The increase is explained, for him, for the transformation of western societies and the changing social and economic patterns of life. To justify the passage to the act, the author refers to the theory of the opportunities developed by Felson and Clarke.
The decline that began from, includes, according to him, four factors: the aging of the population, the reduction in"opportunities", the adaptation of populations to the criminal threat, and finally the means implemented through the policies of the fight against crime.
Ranking of cities in metropolitan France according to their crime rates. Note that some localities are not listed as the towns of Dives-sur-Mer, Deauville, Cannes, Chessy, Agde, Le Touquet-Paris-Plage, as these are special cases, with very strong tourist flows, which will drive up rates, but that do not have social problems linked to the offending local.
In the s, the sociologist Daniel Bell defines organized crime as"a technique among others for the members of the lower classes to gain access to a social status superior, to gain upward mobility."In the poor neighbourhoods of the large cities in the us, the unemployment and the inadequacy of the government programmes of social assistance strongly encourage street crime.
According to the Vera Institute of Justice New York,"the line of demarcation between jobs, both legal and illegal is often imaginary, and many crosses blithely in both directions, from a small job to a little burglary, mixing work days may be occasional small trafficking or protection rackets". Emile Durkheim said that society without crime does not exist, and cannot exist. According to him, the crime is necessary to change the law, but it also enables the company to be in cohesion: when there is a crime and that the criminal gets caught, the other people say that the company works well because it punishes the crime. Aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities of the three main systems of regulating biological and physiological that are the serotonin system, the system of the catecholamines and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
The level of testosterone between-t-he-line account
The abnormalities of these systems are also known to be induced by stress, be it stress, severe acute or chronic stress of low intensity In already, Adolphe Quetelet discovered that crime is a phenomenon that affects more men and young people. In his book, Crime and insecurity, Olivier Hassad presents five types of profiles of criminals:"the near, the juvenile offender, the offender, white-collar, the trafficker professional, the terrorist". He stressed that the majority of crimes are committed by relatives, that the juvenile delinquency constitutes the hard core of the crime, the offender of white-collar has an atypical profile, that the organized crime of global dimension is a fact rooted, and that terrorism is a multifaceted reality. The available statistical data on the crime highlight differences in the rate of offending by age. For example, for acts of assault and battery and other forms of physical assault, in which most of the crimes of the recent past have been recorded in Australia is most often between fifteen and twenty-four years. A peak age a little bit similar was found for crimes of fraud and deception, although much less pronounced. The importance of the criminal's age (and the age where the psychology of the individual can be directed toward behaviors and violent or anti-social) is quoted for a long time by the literature criminological variations of this age have been attributed to contexts social influences demographic groups and differs according to the types of crimes, but these causes are still discussed and periodically revisited. Recent data show that some products are neurotoxic in low doses, such as lead, can, long after exposure child, induce behaviors precursors of criminal behaviour. In fact, for all age categories, the male population is overrepresented. How to explain this phenomenon When looking at the statistics through the legal process, one realizes that the women disappear more frequently than men. We might, therefore, say to these figures that women are treated better than men and therefore are less in prison. But this is not the case, the reason is simply that women commit crimes of a lesser importance and therefore are more often sentenced to fines. Women commit fewer crimes than the men and when they do, they are of lower importance. And this fact is realized even in the areas in which prejudices want to be the women who commit this type of crime, such as shoplifting, but again, this type of crime is also committed in majority by men. The only crime predominantly committed by women, the abduction of minors.
This phenomenon can be explained by the sociological memory of history which is that the woman keeps the children, so when the judge decides, during the course of a divorce, to grant parental authority to the father, it is less well accepted than the reverse.
It remains not less true that for comparable offences, females are less harshly punished than men: less often put in police custody, less often put into consideration, the less heavily convicted. If one adopts this theory, we will in the sense that the empowerment of women are creating more crime by women. For to verify this theory, we will take the expansion of the role of women during the Second world War, they have seen their role increase with the departure of the men at the front. At this time, we see the criminality of women from to, but be careful, the numbers can be misunderstood.
In fact, in absolute terms, the criminality of women has not budged, but the departure of the men pushed the proportion of men and therefore the increase of women without had to the increase of crime among women.
Then in the s, the women become more independent with the feminist movement-and at this point, that is what we see.
The criminality of women is significantly on the rise, and yes, indeed, women have access to more things, which explains this increase, for example, access to the car.
Spend any woman to be driving to a lot of women at the wheel, it is a drastic change of circumstances. But despite this increase, the offences and crimes of women are still proportionately well below those of men. As a third example which shows the error of this theory, it is simply the fact that in the s, the crime rate of women falling, without for all that there is a decline of emancipation.
The sociological theory is therefore based on a wrong interpretation of the numbers to their origin.
One could explain the difference in crime between men and women of this way, but only in part. Testosterone, which has an influence on the aggressiveness, can explain a part of the crimes.
Rate salivary testosterone level is associated with greater risk-taking that could play a role in the crime, burglary and shoplifting.
Blows and injuries are also influenced by the level of testosterone, which would explain why women are fighting less.
The theories outlined above have all tried to answer this difference between men and women, but without achieving it. It is known that social interactions also play an important role, because it allows to channel the deviant behavior. We do not know at present yet not the exact reason that would explain this difference between men and women.
